在什么程度上唯一确定了Applicative / Monad实例？

Question

As described this question/answers , Functor instances are uniquely determined, if they exists.

For lists, there are two well know Applicative instances: [] and ZipList . So Applicative isn't unique (see also Can GHC derive Functor and Applicative instances for a monad transformer? and Why is there no -XDeriveApplicative extension? ). However, ZipList needs infinite lists, as its pure repeats a given element indefinitely.

• Are there other, perhaps better examples of data structures that have at least two Applicative instances?
• Are there any such examples that only involve finite data structures? That is, like if hypothetically Haskell's type system distinguished inductive and coinductive data types, would it be possible to uniquely determine Applicative?

Going further, if we could extend both [] and ZipList to a Monad, we'd have an example where a monad isn't uniquely determined by the data type and its Functor. Alas, ZipList has a Monad instance only if we restrict ourselves to infinite lists ( streams ). And return for [] creates a single-element list, so it requires finite lists. Therefore:

• Are Monad instances uniquely determined by the data type? Or is there an example of a data type that can have two distinct Monad instances?

In the case there is an example with two or more distinct instances, an obvious question arises, if they must/can have the same Applicative instance:

• Are Monad instances uniquely determined by the Applicative instance, or is there an example of an Applicative that can have two distinct Monad instances?
• Is there an example of a data type with two distinct Monad instances, each having a different Applicative super-instance?

And finally we can ask the same question for Alternative/MonadPlus. This is complicated by the fact that there are two distinct set of MonadPlus laws . Assuming we accept one of the set of laws (and for Applicative we accept right/left distributivity/absorption , see also this question ),

• is Alternative uniquely determined by Applicative, and MonadPlus by Monad, or are there any counter-examples?

If any of the above are unique, I'd be interested in knowing why, to have a hint of a proof. If not, an counter-example.

Answer 1

First, since Monoid s are not unique, neither are Writer Monad s or Applicative s. Consider

data M a = M Int a

then you can give it Applicative and Monad instances isomorphic to either of:

Writer (Sum Int)
Writer (Product Int)

Given a Monoid instance for a type s , another isomorphic pair with different Applicative / Monad instances is:

ReaderT s (Writer s)
State s

As for having one Applicative instance extend to two different Monad s, I cannot remember any example. However, back when I tried to convince myself completely about whether ZipList really cannot be made a Monad , I found the following pretty strong restriction that holds for any Monad :

join (fmap (\x -> fmap (\y -> f x y) ys) xs) = f <$> xs <*> ys

That doesn't give join for all values though: in the case of lists the restricted values are the ones where all elements have the same length, ie lists of lists with "rectangular" shape.

(For Reader monads, where the "shape" of monadic values doesn't vary, these are in fact all the m (mx) values, so those do have unique extension. EDIT: Come to think of it, Either , Maybe and Writer also have only "rectangular" m (mx) values, so their extension from Applicative to Monad is also unique.)

I wouldn't be surprised if an Applicative with two Monad s exists, though.

For Alternative / MonadPlus , I cannot recall any law for instances using the Left Distribution law instead of Left Catch, I see nothing preventing you from just swapping (<|>) with flip (<|>) . I don't know if there's a less trivial variation.

ADDENDUM: I suddenly remembered I had found an example of an Applicative with two Monad s. Namely, finite lists. There's the usual Monad [] instance, but you can then replace its join by the following function (essentially making empty lists "infectious"):

ljoin xs
  | any null xs = []
  | otherwise   = concat xs

(Alas, the lists need to be finite because otherwise the null check will never finish, and that would ruin the join . fmap return == id monad law.)

This has the same value as join / concat on rectangular lists of lists, so will give the same Applicative . As I recall, it turns out that the first two monad laws are automatic from that, and you just need to check ljoin . ljoin == ljoin . fmap ljoin ljoin . ljoin == ljoin . fmap ljoin ljoin . ljoin == ljoin . fmap ljoin .

Answer 2

Given that every Applicative has a Backwards counterpart,

newtype Backwards f x = Backwards {backwards :: f x}
instance Applicative f => Applicative (Backwards f) where
  pure x = Backwards (pure x)
  Backwards ff <*> Backwards fs = Backwards (flip ($) <$> fs <*> ff)

it's unusual for Applicative to be uniquely determined, just as (and this is very far from unrelated) many sets extend to monoids in multiple ways.

In this answer , I set the exercise of finding at least four distinct valid Applicative instances for nonempty lists: I won't spoil it here, but I will give a big hint on how to hunt.

Meanwhile, in some wonderful recent work (which I saw at a summer school a few months ago), Tarmo Uustalu showed a rather neat way to get a handle on this problem, at least when the underlying functor is a container , in the sense of Abbott, Altenkirch and Ghani.

Warning: Dependent types ahead!

What is a container? If you have dependent types to hand, you can present container-like functors F uniformly, as being determined by two components

1. a set of shapes, S : Set
2. an S-indexed set of positions, P : S -> Set

Up to isomorphism, container data structures in FX are given by the dependent pair of some shape s : S, and some function e : P s -> X, which tells you the element located at each position. That is, we define the extension of a container

(S <| P) X = (s : S) * (P s -> X)

(which, by the way, looks a lot like a generalized power series if you read -> as reversed exponentiation). The triangle is supposed to remind you of a tree node sideways, with an element s : S labelling the apex, and the baseline representing the position set P s. We say that some functor is a container if it is isomorphic to some S <| P S <| P .

In Haskell, you can easily take S = F () , but constructing P can take quite a bit of type-hackery. But that is something you can try at home. You'll find that containers are closed under all the usual polynomial type-forming operations, as well as identity,

Id ~= () <| \ _ -> ()

composition, where a whole shape is made from just one outer shape and an inner shape for each outer position,

(S0 <| P0) . (S1 <| P1)  ~=  ((S0 <| P0) S1) <| \ (s0, e0) -> (p0 : P0, P1 (e0 p0))

and some other things, notably the tensor , where there is one outer and one inner shape (so "outer" and "inner" are interchangeable)

(S0 <| P0) (X) (S1 <| P1)   =   ((S0, S1) <| \ (s0, s1) -> (P0 s0, P1 s1))

so that F (X) G means " F -structures of G -structures-all-the-same-shape", eg, [] (X) [] means rectangular lists-of-lists. But I digress

Polymorphic functions between containers Every polymorphic function

m : forall X. (S0 <| P0) X -> (S1 <| P1) X

can be implemented by a container morphism , constructed from two components in a very particular way.

1. a function f : S0 -> S1 mapping input shapes to output shapes;
2. a function g : (s0 : S0) -> P1 (f s0) -> P0 s0 mapping output positions to input positions.

Our polymorphic function is then

\ (s0, e0) -> (f s0, e0 . g s0)

where the output shape is computed from the input shape, then the output positions are filled up by picking elements from input positions.

(If you're Peter Hancock, you have a whole other metaphor for what's going on. Shapes are Commands; Positions are Responses; a container morphism is a device driver , translating commands one way, then responses the other.)

Every container morphism gives you a polymorphic function, but the reverse is also true. Given such an m, we may take

(f s, g s) = m (s, id)

That is, we have a representation theorem , saying that every polymorphic function between two containers is given by such an f , g -pair.

What about Applicative ? We kind of got a bit lost along the way, building all this machinery. But it has been worth it. When the underlying functors for monads and applicatives are containers, the polymorphic functions pure and <*> , return and join must be representable by the relevant notion of container morphism.

Let's take applicatives first, using their monoidal presentation. We need

unit : () -> (S <| P) ()
mult : forall X, Y. ((S <| P) X, (S <| P) Y) -> (S <| P) (X, Y)

The left-to-right maps for shapes require us to deliver

unitS : () -> S
multS : (S, S) -> S

so it looks like we might need a monoid. And when you check that the applicative laws, you find we need exactly a monoid. Equipping a container with applicative structure is exactly refining the monoid structures on its shapes with suitable position-respecting operations. There's nothing to do for unit (because there is no chocie of source position), but for mult , we need that whenenver

multS (s0, s1) = s

we have

multP (s0, s1) : P s -> (P s0, P s1)

satisfying appropriate identity and associativity conditions. If we switch to Hancock's interpretation, we're defining a monoid (skip, semicolon) for commands, where there is no way to look at the response to the first command before choosing the second, like commands are a deck of punch cards. We have to be able to chop up responses to combined commands into the individual responses to the individual commands.

So, every monoid on the shapes gives us a potential applicative structure. For lists, shapes are numbers (lengths), and there are a great many monoids from which to choose. Even if shapes live in Bool , we have quite a bit of choice.

What about Monad ? Meanwhile, for monads M with M ~= S <| P M ~= S <| P . We need

return : Id -> M
join   : M . M -> M

Looking at shapes first, that means we need a sort-of lopsided monoid.

return_f : () -> S
join_f   : (S <| P) S -> S  --  (s : S, P s -> S) -> S

It's lopsided because we get a bunch of shapes on the right, not just one. If we switch to Hancock's interpretation, we're defining a kind of sequential composition for commands, where we do let the second command be chosen on the basis of the first response, like we're interacting at a teletype. More geometrically, we're explaining how to glom two layers of a tree into one. It would be very surprising if such compositions were unique.

Again, for the positions, we have to map single output positions to pairs in a coherent way. This is trickier for monads: we first choose an outer position (response), then we have to choose an inner position(response) appropriate to the shape (command) found at the first position (chosen after the first response).

I'd love to link to Tarmo's work for the details, but it doesn't seem to have hit the streets yet. He has actually used this analysis to enumerate all possible monad structures for several choices of underlying container. I'm looking forward to the paper!

Edit. By way of doing honour to the other answer, I should observe that when everywhere P s = () , then (S <| P) X ~= (S, X) and the monad/applicative structures coincide exactly with each other and with the monoid structures on S . That is, for writer monads, we need only choose the shape-level operations, because there is exactly one position for a value in every case.