使用openmp + SIMD没有加速

Question

I am new to Openmp and now trying to use Openmp + SIMD intrinsics to speedup my program, but the result is far from expectation.

In order to simplify the case without losing much essential information, I wrote a simplier toy example:

#include <omp.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <sys/time.h>

#include "immintrin.h" // for SIMD intrinsics

int main() {
    int64_t size = 160000000;
    std::vector<int> src(size);

    // generating random src data
    for (int i = 0; i < size; ++i)
        src[i] = (rand() / (float)RAND_MAX) * size;

    // to store the final results, so size is the same as src
    std::vector<int> dst(size);

    // get pointers for vector load and store
    int * src_ptr = src.data();
    int * dst_ptr = dst.data();

    __m256i vec_src;
    __m256i vec_op = _mm256_set1_epi32(2);
    __m256i vec_dst;

    omp_set_num_threads(4); // you can change thread count here

    // only measure the parallel part
    struct timeval one, two;
    double get_time;
    gettimeofday (&one, NULL);

    #pragma omp parallel for private(vec_src, vec_op, vec_dst)
    for (int64_t i = 0; i < size; i += 8) {
        // load needed data
        vec_src = _mm256_loadu_si256((__m256i const *)(src_ptr + i));

        // computation part
        vec_dst = _mm256_add_epi32(vec_src, vec_op);
        vec_dst = _mm256_mullo_epi32(vec_dst, vec_src);
        vec_dst = _mm256_slli_epi32(vec_dst, 1);
        vec_dst = _mm256_add_epi32(vec_dst, vec_src);
        vec_dst = _mm256_sub_epi32(vec_dst, vec_src);

        // store results
        _mm256_storeu_si256((__m256i *)(dst_ptr + i), vec_dst);
    }

    gettimeofday(&two, NULL);
    double oneD = one.tv_sec + (double)one.tv_usec * .000001;
    double twoD = two.tv_sec + (double)two.tv_usec * .000001;
    get_time = 1000 * (twoD - oneD);
    std::cout << "took time: " << get_time << std::endl;

    // output something in case the computation is optimized out
    int64_t i = (int)((rand() / (float)RAND_MAX) * size);
    for (int64_t i = 0; i < size; ++i)
        std::cout << i << ": " << dst[i] << std::endl;

    return 0;
}

It is compiled using icpc -g -std=c++11 -march=core-avx2 -O3 -qopenmp test.cpp -o test and the elapsed time of the parallel part is measured. The result is as follows (the median value is picked out of 5 runs each):

1 thread: 92.519

2 threads: 89.045

4 threads: 90.361

The computations seem embarrassingly parallel, as different threads can load their needed data simultaneously given different indices, and the case is similar for writing the results, but why no speedups?

More information:

1. I checked the assembly code using icpc -g -std=c++11 -march=core-avx2 -O3 -qopenmp -S test.cpp and found vectorized instructions are generated;

2. To check if it is memory-bound, I commented the computation part in the loop, and the measured time decreased to around 60 , but it does not change much if I change the thread count from 1 -> 2 -> 4 .

Any advice or clue is welcome.

EDIT-1:

Thank @JerryCoffin for pointing out the possible cause, so I did the Memory Access Analysis using Vtune. Here are the results:

1-thread: Memory Bound: 6.5%, L1 Bound: 0.134, L3 Latency: 0.039

2-threads: Memory Bound: 18.0%, L1 Bound: 0.115, L3 Latency: 0.015

4-threads: Memory Bound: 21.6%, L1 Bound: 0.213, L3 Latency: 0.003

It is an Intel 4770 Processor with 25.6GB/s (23GB/s measured by Vtune) max. bandwidth. The memory bound does increase, but I am still not sure if that is the cause. Any advice?

EDIT-2 (just trying to give thorough information, so the appended stuff can be long but not tedious hopefully):

Thanks for the suggestions from @PaulR and @bazza. I tried 3 ways for comparison. One thing to note is that the processor has 4 cores and 8 hardware threads. Here are the results:

(1) just initialize dst as all zeros in advance: 1 thread: 91.922; 2 threads: 93.170; 4 threads: 93.868 1 thread: 91.922; 2 threads: 93.170; 4 threads: 93.868 1 thread: 91.922; 2 threads: 93.170; 4 threads: 93.868 --- seems not effective;

(2) without (1), put the parallel part in an outer loop over 100 iterations, and measure the time of the 100 iterations: 1 thread: 9109.49; 2 threads: 4951.20; 4 threads: 2511.01; 8 threads: 2861.75 1 thread: 9109.49; 2 threads: 4951.20; 4 threads: 2511.01; 8 threads: 2861.75 1 thread: 9109.49; 2 threads: 4951.20; 4 threads: 2511.01; 8 threads: 2861.75 --- quite effective except for 8 threads;

(3) based on (2), put one more iteration before the 100 iterations, and measure the time of the 100 iterations: 1 thread: 9078.02; 2 threads: 4956.66; 4 threads: 2516.93; 8 threads: 2088.88 1 thread: 9078.02; 2 threads: 4956.66; 4 threads: 2516.93; 8 threads: 2088.88 1 thread: 9078.02; 2 threads: 4956.66; 4 threads: 2516.93; 8 threads: 2088.88 --- similar with (2) but more effective for 8 threads.

It seems more iterations can expose the advantages of openmp + SIMD, but the computation / memory access ratio is unchanged regardless loop count, and locality seems not to be the reason as well since src or dst is too large to stay in any caches, therefore no relations exist between consecutive iterations.

Any advice?

EDIT 3:

In case of misleading, one thing needs to be clarified: in (2) and (3), the openmp directive is outside the added outer loop

#pragma omp parallel for private(vec_src, vec_op, vec_dst)
for (int k = 0; k < 100; ++k) {
    for (int64_t i = 0; i < size; i += 8) {
        ......
    }
}

ie the outer loop is parallelized using multithreads, and the inner loop is still serially processed. So the effective speedup in (2) and (3) might be achieved by enhanced locality among threads.

I did another experiment that the the openmp directive is put inside the outer loop:

for (int k = 0; k < 100; ++k) {
    #pragma omp parallel for private(vec_src, vec_op, vec_dst)
    for (int64_t i = 0; i < size; i += 8) {
        ......
    }
}

and the speedup is still not good: 1 thread: 9074.18; 2 threads: 8809.36; 4 threads: 8936.89.93; 8 threads: 9098.83 1 thread: 9074.18; 2 threads: 8809.36; 4 threads: 8936.89.93; 8 threads: 9098.83 1 thread: 9074.18; 2 threads: 8809.36; 4 threads: 8936.89.93; 8 threads: 9098.83 .

Problem still exists. :(

EDIT-4:

If I replace the vectorized part with scalar operations like this (the same calculations but in scalar way):

#pragma omp parallel for
for (int64_t i = 0; i < size; i++) { // not i += 8
    int query = src[i];
    int res = src[i] + 2;
    res = res * query;
    res = res << 1;
    res = res + query;
    res = res - query;
    dst[i] = res;
}

The speedup is 1 thread: 92.065; 2 threads: 89.432; 4 threads: 88.864 1 thread: 92.065; 2 threads: 89.432; 4 threads: 88.864 1 thread: 92.065; 2 threads: 89.432; 4 threads: 88.864 . May I come to the conclusion that the seemingly embarassing parallel is actually memory bound (the bottleneck is load / store operations)? If so, why can't load / store operations well parallelized?

Answer 1

May I come to the conclusion that the seemingly embarassing parallel is actually memory bound (the bottleneck is load / store operations)? If so, why can't load / store operations well parallelized?

Yes this problem is embarrassingly parallel in the sense that it is easy to parallelize due to the lack of dependencies. That doesn't imply that it will scale perfectly. You can still have a bad initialization overhead vs work ratio or shared resources limiting your speedup.

In your case, you are indeed limited by memory bandwidth. A practical consideration first: When compile with icpc (16.0.3 or 17.0.1), the "scalar" version yields better code when size is made constexpr . This is not due to the fact that it optimizes away these two redundant lines:

res = res + query;
res = res - query;

It does, but that makes no difference. Mainly the compiler uses exactly the same instruction that you do with the intrinsic, except for the store. Fore the store, it uses vmovntdq instead of vmovdqu , making use of sophisticated knowledge about the program, memory and the architecture. Not only does vmovntdq require aligned memory and can therefore be more efficient. It gives the CPU a non-temporal hint , preventing this data from being cached during the write to memory. This improves performance, because writing it to cache requires to load the remainder of the cache-line from memory. So while your initial SIMD version does require three memory operations: Reading the source, reading the destination cache line, writing the destination, the compiler version with the non-temporal store requires only two. In fact On my i7-4770 system, the compiler-generated version reduces the runtime at 2 threads from ~85.8 ms to 58.0 ms, and almost perfect 1.5x speedup. The lesson here is to trust your compiler unless you know the architecture and instruction set extremely well.

Considering peak performance here, 58 ms for transferring 2*160000000*4 byte corresponds to 22.07 GB/s (summarizing read and write), which is about the same than your VTune results. (funny enough considering 85.8 ms is about the same bandwidth for two read, one write). There isn't much more direct room for improvement.

To further improve performance, you would have to do something about the operation / byte ratio of your code. Remember that your processor can perform 217.6 GFLOP/s (I guess either the same or twice for int ops), but can only read&write 3.2 G int/s. That gives you an idea how much operations you need to perform to not be limited by memory. So if you can, work on the data in blocks so that you can reuse data in caches.

I cannot reproduce your results for (2) and (3). When I loop around the inner loop, the scaling behaves the same. The results look fishy, particularly in the light of the results being so consistent with peak performance otherwise. Generally, I recommend to do the measuring inside of the parallel region and leverage omp_get_wtime like such:

  double one, two;
#pragma omp parallel 
  {
    __m256i vec_src;
    __m256i vec_op = _mm256_set1_epi32(2);   
    __m256i vec_dst;

#pragma omp master
    one = omp_get_wtime();
#pragma omp barrier
    for (int kk = 0; kk < 100; kk++)
#pragma omp for
    for (int64_t i = 0; i < size; i += 8) {
        ...
    }
#pragma omp master
    {
      two = omp_get_wtime();
      std::cout << "took time: " << (two-one) * 1000 << std::endl;
    }
  }

A final remark: Desktop processors and server processors have very different characteristics regarding memory performance. On contemporary server processors, you need much more active threads to saturate the memory bandwidth, while on desktop processors a core can often almost saturate the memory bandwidth.

Edit: One more thought about VTune not classifying it as memory-bound. This may be cause by the short computation time vs initialization. Try to see what VTune says about the code in a loop.