什么是 Haskell 中 map 函数的 Lambda 演算等价物？

Question

The map function returns a list constructed by applying a function (the first argument) to all items in a list passed as the second argument.

I'm trying to figure out what this would look like if displayed in Lambda Calculus notation. Can anyone give an example?

Answer 1

Since this is tagged haskell I'll write the answer in Haskell, but building everything on functions like you would in lambda calculus. This generally incurs carrying around an extra type parameter r for the continuation-passing style.

Listsare usuallycan be encoded as deconstruction-matchers: (this is Scott encoding , as the comments inform me)

newtype List r a = List { deconstructList
             :: r                    -- ^ `Nil` case
             -> (a -> List r a -> r) -- ^ `Cons` case
             -> r                    -- ^ result
           }

Now we want to give this a Functor instance. As with other problems, you can let the compiler guide you:

instance Functor (List r) where
  fmap f (List l) = List _

This will prompt

LambdaList.hs:8:26: error:
    • Found hole: _ :: r -> (b -> List r b -> r) -> r
      Where: ‘b’ is a rigid type variable bound by
               the type signature for:
                 fmap :: forall a b. (a -> b) -> List r a -> List r b
               at LambdaList.hs:8:3-6
             ‘r’ is a rigid type variable bound by
               the instance declaration
               at LambdaList.hs:7:10-25
    • In the first argument of ‘List’, namely ‘_’
      In the expression: List _
      In an equation for ‘fmap’: fmap f (List l) = List _
    • Relevant bindings include
        l :: r -> (a -> List r a -> r) -> r (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:16)
        f :: a -> b (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:8)
        fmap :: (a -> b) -> List r a -> List r b
          (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:3)
      Valid hole fits include
        const :: forall a b. a -> b -> a
          with const @r @(b -> List r b -> r)
          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at LambdaList.hs:1:1
           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
        return :: forall (m :: * -> *) a. Monad m => a -> m a
          with return @((->) (b -> List r b -> r)) @r
          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at LambdaList.hs:1:1
           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
        pure :: forall (f :: * -> *) a. Applicative f => a -> f a
          with pure @((->) (b -> List r b -> r)) @r
          (imported from ‘Prelude’ at LambdaList.hs:1:1
           (and originally defined in ‘GHC.Base’))
  |
8 |   fmap f (List l) = List _
  |                          ^

So we're supposed to define a function; well then it's probably a good idea to start with lambda-binding some arguments:

instance Functor (List r) where
  fmap f (List l) = List $ \nilCs consCs -> _

LambdaList.hs:8:45: error:
    • Found hole: _ :: r
      Where: ‘r’ is a rigid type variable bound by
               the instance declaration
               at LambdaList.hs:7:10-25
    • In the expression: _
      In the second argument of ‘($)’, namely ‘\ nilCs consCs -> _’
      In the expression: List $ \ nilCs consCs -> _
    • Relevant bindings include
        consCs :: b -> List r b -> r (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:35)
        nilCs :: r (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:29)
        l :: r -> (a -> List r a -> r) -> r (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:16)
        f :: a -> b (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:8)
        fmap :: (a -> b) -> List r a -> List r b
          (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:3)
      Valid hole fits include nilCs :: r (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:29)

The CPS-result should still come from the original list, so we need to use that at this point – with args still TBD, but the nil case won't change so we can right away pass that too:

instance Functor (List r) where
  fmap f (List l) = List $ \nilCs consCs -> l nilCs _

LambdaList.hs:8:53: error:
    • Found hole: _ :: a -> List r a -> r
      Where: ‘a’ is a rigid type variable bound by
               the type signature for:
                 fmap :: forall a b. (a -> b) -> List r a -> List r b
               at LambdaList.hs:8:3-6
             ‘r’ is a rigid type variable bound by
               the instance declaration
               at LambdaList.hs:7:10-25
    • In the second argument of ‘l’, namely ‘_’
      In the expression: l nilCs _
      In the second argument of ‘($)’, namely
        ‘\ nilCs consCs -> l nilCs _’
    • Relevant bindings include
        consCs :: b -> List r b -> r (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:35)
        nilCs :: r (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:29)
        l :: r -> (a -> List r a -> r) -> r (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:16)
        f :: a -> b (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:8)
        fmap :: (a -> b) -> List r a -> List r b
          (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:3)

So it's again function-time, ie bind some arguments:

instance Functor (List r) where
  fmap f (List l) = List
     $ \nilCs consCs -> l nilCs $ \lHead lTail -> _

LambdaList.hs:9:51: error:
    • Found hole: _ :: r
      Where: ‘r’ is a rigid type variable bound by
               the instance declaration
               at LambdaList.hs:7:10-25
    • In the expression: _
      In the second argument of ‘($)’, namely ‘\ lHead lTail -> _’
      In the expression: l nilCs $ \ lHead lTail -> _
    • Relevant bindings include
        lTail :: List r a (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:42)
        lHead :: a (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:36)
        consCs :: b -> List r b -> r (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:15)
        nilCs :: r (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:9)
        l :: r -> (a -> List r a -> r) -> r (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:16)
        f :: a -> b (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:8)
        (Some bindings suppressed; use -fmax-relevant-binds=N or -fno-max-relevant-binds)
      Valid hole fits include nilCs :: r (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:9)

At this point we have a lot in scope that could conceivably be used, but a good rule of thumb is that we should probably use all of them at least once, so let's bring in consCs , with two TBD arguments:

instance Functor (List r) where
  fmap f (List l) = List
     $ \nilCs consCs -> l nilCs $ \lHead lTail -> consCs _ _

LambdaList.hs:9:58: error:
    • Found hole: _ :: b
      Where: ‘b’ is a rigid type variable bound by
               the type signature for:
                 fmap :: forall a b. (a -> b) -> List r a -> List r b
               at LambdaList.hs:8:3-6
    • In the first argument of ‘consCs’, namely ‘_’
      In the expression: consCs _ _
      In the second argument of ‘($)’, namely
        ‘\ lHead lTail -> consCs _ _’
    • Relevant bindings include
        lTail :: List r a (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:42)
        lHead :: a (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:36)
        consCs :: b -> List r b -> r (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:15)
        nilCs :: r (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:9)
        l :: r -> (a -> List r a -> r) -> r (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:16)
        f :: a -> b (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:8)
        (Some bindings suppressed; use -fmax-relevant-binds=N or -fno-max-relevant-binds)

Ok, there's only one way to obtain a b value: using f , which needs an a as its argument, for which we have exactly one, namely lHead :

instance Functor (List r) where
  fmap f (List l) = List
     $ \nilCs consCs -> l nilCs
      $ \lHead lTail -> consCs (f lHead) _

LambdaList.hs:9:60: error:
    • Found hole: _ :: List r b
      Where: ‘b’ is a rigid type variable bound by
               the type signature for:
                 fmap :: forall a b. (a -> b) -> List r a -> List r b
               at LambdaList.hs:8:3-6
             ‘r’ is a rigid type variable bound by
               the instance declaration
               at LambdaList.hs:7:10-25
    • In the second argument of ‘consCs’, namely ‘_’
      In the expression: consCs _ _
      In the second argument of ‘($)’, namely
        ‘\ lHead lTail -> consCs _ _’
    • Relevant bindings include
        lTail :: List r a (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:42)
        lHead :: a (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:36)
        consCs :: b -> List r b -> r (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:15)
        nilCs :: r (bound at LambdaList.hs:9:9)
        l :: r -> (a -> List r a -> r) -> r (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:16)
        f :: a -> b (bound at LambdaList.hs:8:8)
        (Some bindings suppressed; use -fmax-relevant-binds=N or -fno-max-relevant-binds)

Here we have a bit of a problem: no List rb is in scope or in the result of any of the bindings. However, what does yield a List rb is the function we're just defining here: fmap f . In standard lambda calculus you can't actually recursively call a definition (you need to use a fixpoint combinator to emulate it), but I'll ignore this here. This is a valid Haskell solution:

instance Functor (List r) where
  fmap f (List l) = List
     $ \nilCs consCs -> l nilCs
      $ \lHead lTail -> consCs (f lHead) (fmap f lTail)

Or written in lambda style (erasing the List newtype constructor),

map = \f l ν ζ ⟼ l ν (\h t ⟼ ζ (f h) (map f t))