为什么是forall a。 一个不被认为是Int的子类型，而我可以使用类型forall a的表达式。 预计会有任何一种类型的Int？

Question

Consider the following pair of function definitions, which pass the type checker:

a :: forall a. a
a = undefined

b :: Int
b = a

Ie an expression of type forall a. a forall a. a can be used where one of type Int is expected. This seems to me a lot like subtyping but it is claimed the type system of Haskell lacks subtyping. How do these forms of substitutability differ?

This question is not specific to forall a. a forall a. a . Other examples include:

id :: forall a. a -> a
id x = x

idInt :: Int -> Int
idInt = id

Answer 1

In typed lambda calculi, we have the typing relation, usually denoted as : or in Haskell as :: . In general the relation is "many to many", so a type can contain multiple values and also a value can have many types.

In particular in polymorphic type systems a value can have multiple types. For example

map :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]

but also

map :: (Int -> Int) -> [Int] -> [Int].

In such type systems it's (sometimes) possible to define a relation on types with the meaning "more general type than", a type order . If t ⊑ s then t is more general than s , meaning that if M : t then also M : s , and the typing rules of such a type system allow to infer exactly that. Or we say that s is a specialization of t . So in this sense, there is a subtyping relation on types.

However, when we talk about subtyping in object oriented languages, we usually mean nominal subtyping , that is, we declare which types are subtypes of what, like when we define class inheritance. While in Haskell, it's a property of types, independent of any declarations. For example any type is a specialization of forall a . a forall a . a .

For the Hindley-Milner type system , which allows type inference and which is the base for most functional languages, there is the notion of principal type : If an expression M has a (any) type, then it also has its principal type, and the principal type is the most general type of all the possible types of M . The key feature is that the HM type inference algorithm always finds the most general type. So the most general, inferred principal type can be specialized to any valid type of M .

Answer 2

With a question like this, I would take a step back and say that, fundamentally, the mathematical theories that underlie Haskell's design are System F variants that do not have the concept of subtyping.

Yes, it is possible to look at Haskell's surface syntax and notice that there are cases like what you bring up, where an expression of some type T can be used in any context where T' is expected. But this doesn't arise because Haskell was designed to support subtypes. Rather, it arises as an accident of the fact that Haskell was designed to be more user-friendly than a faithful rendering of System F would be.

In this case, it has to do with the fact that type-level quantifiers are generally not written explicitly in Haskell code, and type level lambdas and applications never are. If you look at the type forall a. a forall a. a from a System F angle, the substitutability into Int contexts goes away. a :: forall a. a a :: forall a. a is a type level function and cannot be used in a context that expects Int —you need to first apply it to Int to get a Int :: Int , which is then what you can actually use in an Int context. Haskell's syntax hides that in the name of user-friendliness, but it's there in the underlying theory.

So in short, while you could analyze Haskell by tabulating which expression types can be substituted into which context types and demonstrate that there is some sort of crypto-subtype relation, it's just not fruitful because it yields analyses that swim against the current of the design. And it's not so much a matter of technicalities as it is of intent and other human factors.

Answer 3

You are correct that the types a value of type forall a. a forall a. a can be used wherever an Int is expected and that this implies a subtype relationship between the two types. The other answers above try to convince you that this "more-polymorphic-than"-relation is not subtyping. However, while it is certainly different from the forms of subtyping found in typical object-oriented languages, this does not mean that the "more-polymorphic-than"-relation cannot be seen as a (different) form of subtyping. In fact, some formalisations of polymorphic type systems model exactly this relation in their subtype relation. This is the case, for example, in the type system in Odersky and Läufer's paper "Putting type annotations to work" .

Answer 4

By :: a we mean "Any type", but not a subtype. a could be Int , or Bool , or IO (Maybe Ordering) , but none in particular. a is not a type exactly, but a type variable.

Let's say we have a function like this:

id x = x

The compiler understands that there is no specific type for our argument x . We can use any type for x , just as long as it's equivalent to whatever comes out of id. So, we write the signature as so:

--    /- Any type in...
--    |    /- ...same type out.
--    V    V
id :: a -> a

Remember that types begin with a capital letter in Haskell. This is not a type: it is a type variable!

We use polymorphism because it's easier to do so. For instance, composition is a useful idea:

(>>>) :: (a -> b) -> (b -> c) -> (a -> c)
(>>>) f g a = g (f a)

So we can write things like:

plusOneTimesFive :: Int -> Int
plusOneTimesFive = (+1) >>> (* 5)

reverseHead :: [Bool] -> Bool
reverseHead = reverse >>> head

But what if we had to write every type out like this:

(>>>) :: (Bool -> Int) -> (Int -> String) -> (Bool -> String)
(>>>) f g a = g (f a)

(>>>') :: (Ordering -> Double) -> (Double -> IO ()) -> (Ordering -> IO ())
(>>>') f g a = g (f a)

(>>>'') :: (Int -> Int) -> (Int -> Bool) -> (Int -> Bool)
(>>>'') f g a = g (f a)

-- ...and so on.

That'd just be silly.

So the compiler infers the type using type unification like so:

Let's say I input this into GHCi. Let's say 6 in an Int for simplicity here.

id 6

The compiler thinks: " id :: a -> a , and it's being passed an Int , so a = Int , so id 6 :: Int .

This is not subtyping. Subtyping could be captured using typeclasses, but this is basic polymorphism at play.

Answer 5

It's not subtyping, it's type unification!

a :: forall a. a
a = undefined

b :: Int
b = a

In b = a , we're constraining b and a to be of the same type, so the compiler checks that that is possible. a has type forall a. a forall a. a , which, by definition, unifies with every type, so the compiler oks our constraint.

Type unification also lets us do things like:

f :: (a -> Int) -> a
g :: (String -> b) -> b
h :: String -> Int
h = f g

Walking through the unification, f :: (a -> Int) -> a means g must have type a -> Int , which means a -> Int must unify with (String -> b) -> b , so b must b must be Int , which gives g the concrete type (String -> Int) -> Int , which means a is String -> Int .

Neither a -> Int nor (String -> b) -> b is a subtype of the other, but they can be unified as (String -> Int) -> Int .